Author: Alberto Cossu – 15/09/2025
Enrica Garzilli is a renowned scholar and researcher with a profound knowledge of Eastern languages and cultures. She has taught at major American universities, including Harvard, where she specialized in history, philology, and religious studies, with a particular focus on South Asia. Her work is distinguished by its multidisciplinary approach and meticulous archival research, which allows her to reveal unpublished aspects of the historical events and figures she studies.
The weighty essay “Mussolini e l’Oriente” (UTET, 2023), which spans over 1,000 pages, is not merely another biography of the Duce or a conventional analysis of fascist foreign policy. It is a work that delves deeply, revealing an aspect almost completely overlooked by historiography: Benito Mussolini’s ambition to extend Italian influence not only in the Mediterranean and Africa but also, in a systematic and strategic way, into the vast and complex Asian world. With meticulous research based on unpublished documents, the author paints a picture in which the East is not a simple exotic horizon but a fundamental piece of the fascist geopolitical mosaic. The central thesis, supported by an impressive body of documents, is that Mussolini’s interest in Asia was not an improvisation dictated by the alliance with Japan in the 1930s but a structural element of his vision from the very beginning of the regime. Garzilli compels us to consider the global strategic perspective that inspired fascism.
Mussolini, as Garzilli convincingly demonstrates, saw in Asia an extraordinary opportunity to break the hegemony of the Western powers, primarily the British. The British Empire, with its “string of pearls” stretching from Suez to India, represented the main obstacle to Italian expansion. Mussolini understood that weakening Great Britain in Asia meant undermining the foundations of its global power. His strategy was therefore twofold: on one hand, to approach Asian nations seeking independence, presenting himself as an alternative to the colonial powers; on the other, to build alliances with militaristic and authoritarian regimes that shared an anti-liberal and anti-democratic ideology. Fascism proposed itself as a “third way” between liberal capitalism and Soviet communism, a formula that, at least on a propaganda level, found an echo in some Asian contexts. Garzilli highlights how this “third way” was supported by a sophisticated cultural propaganda and a secret diplomacy that used key figures such as orientalists, explorers, and diplomats.
These figures, acting as “ambassadors” of the regime, not only spread the image of a strong and modern Italy but also gathered valuable information and wove a network of contacts that would be fundamental for Mussolini’s future ambitions. The author reveals a little-known aspect: Italy’s role as a “pioneer” in relations with Afghanistan, which it was the first to recognize in 1921, paving the way for a series of agreements that inserted it into the “Great Game” among the powers for control of Central Asia.
The book is structured into a series of chapters that explore the different directions of Mussolini’s Eastern policy, each dedicated to a specific country or region. Japan emerges as the “ideal” ally, not just for political but also for ideological reasons. In Japanese militarism and martial ethics, Mussolini admired an echo of the values that fascism wanted to impose in Italy. Garzilli documents how as early as the 1920s, the Duce looked to Japan as a potential strategic partner in the struggle against the Western powers, an idea that later culminated in the Tripartite Pact.
India, which Mussolini admiringly called “the world’s treasure chest,” represents another fascinating chapter. The author not only confirms the Duce’s ambitions for conquest but also reveals the complexity of his relationship with the subcontinent. While seeking to threaten British rule, the Duce maintained contacts with Indian nationalist leaders, who in turn, as some documents show, were not immune to a certain fascination with the figure of the strongman. The relationship between Mussolini and figures like Gandhi and Subhas Chandra Bose is one of the most illuminating passages in the book. Garzilli shows how Gandhi, while not sharing the fascist ideology, had a certain attention and attraction to the political figure, as demonstrated by his letter to Romain Rolland: “Mussolini is an enigma for me. Many of the reforms he has made appeal to me. He seems to have done a lot for the rural class. Of course, the iron fist is there. What strikes me is that behind his ruthlessness is the motive of serving the people. Even behind his bombastic speeches, there is a core of sincerity and love for his people. In general, he does not seem like a man of humanity. But I must say that with me, he was charming.”
The chapter on Afghanistan reveals Mussolini’s strategic intelligence. By being the first to recognize its independence, Italy secured a privileged position in a region vital for controlling trade routes and the balance of power in Asia. This diplomatic move allowed Mussolini to insinuate himself into an area traditionally dominated by the Russians and British, demonstrating a long-term vision that went far beyond improvisation. Finally, the author examines Gian Galeazzo Ciano’s role in China, where the Duce attempted to insert himself into the complex network of relations with the colonial powers and nascent Chinese nationalism. Fascist Italy positioned itself as a “third player” in the hope of gaining economic and political advantages.
One of the book’s strengths is its rigorous research methodology. Garzilli scoured archives in Italy, the United Kingdom, India, and elsewhere, bringing to light documents that redraw the map of international relations during the twenty-year fascist period. The author draws on private letters, diplomatic dispatches, travel notes, and meeting minutes, constructing a narrative that is both historically grounded and compelling. The essay’s interdisciplinary approach, which merges political history, the history of international relations, and cultural history, is another of its merits. Garzilli does not merely recount the facts but contextualizes them, analyzing the ideas and currents of thought that animated fascism in relation to the East.
In this context, the figure of Giuseppe Tucci, a world-renowned orientalist, takes on a leading role. He was not a simple scholar but a true cultural and political emissary for fascism. His missions to India and Nepal, skillfully directed by fascist diplomacy, were not just scientific explorations but opportunities to establish contacts, gather information, and promote the image of an Italy that was “a friend” to Eastern cultures, in contrast to the colonial arrogance of the other powers. His figure is the perfect example of how fascism knew how to use culture and erudition as tools of power.
Conclusion
Enrica Garzilli’s “Mussolini e l’Oriente” is a work of extraordinary historiographical importance. Its main merit is to have revealed a little-known chapter of fascist history, demonstrating that Mussolini’s foreign policy was not confined to the “mare nostrum” but had a global scope. The book is written with great clarity, despite the complexity of the topics discussed, and the thesis is supported by solid documentation that leaves no room for doubt. The author succeeds in weaving together micro-historical narratives, such as the stories of diplomats and orientalists, with a macro-historical analysis of geopolitical dynamics, making the text both engaging and extremely instructive.
The book is a warning not to oversimplify history and not to take consolidated narratives for granted. The figure of Mussolini emerges as that of a politician who was not only ambitious but also pragmatic and endowed with a strategic vision that went far beyond the rhetoric of the twenty-year fascist period. The work is fundamental for anyone who wants to deeply understand the nature of Italian fascism and its international ramifications. It offers food for thought not only for historians but also for readers interested in the dynamics of international relations and the complex interaction between ideologies, culture, and power. It is an essential text that deserves a prominent place in the library of anyone who wants to move beyond conventional narratives and discover a hidden, yet crucial, side of contemporary history.